Levantine Arabic grammar is the set of rules by which Levantine Arabic creates statements, questions and commands. In many respects, it is quite similar to that of the other vernacular Arabic varieties.
Word order
Both VSO (verb before subject before object) and SVO (subject before verb before object) word orders are possible in Levantine Arabic. The verb is before the object (VO).[1] However, Classical Arabic tends to prefer VSO, whereas in Levantine SVO is more common.[2] Subject-initial order indicates topic-prominent sentences, while verb-initial order indicates subject-prominent sentences.[3]
In interrogative sentences, the interrogative particle comes first.[4]
Copula
There is no copula used in the present tense in Levantine. In other tenses, the verb kān (كان) is used. Its present tense form is used in the future tense.[5]
Definiteness
There is no indefinite article in Levantine Arabic. Nouns (except proper nouns) are automatically indefinite by the absence of the definite article.[6]
The Arabic definite article ال (il) precedes the noun or adjective and has multiple pronunciations. Its vowel is dropped when the preceding word ends in a vowel. A helping vowel "e" is inserted if the following word begins with a consonant cluster.[7]
It assimilates with "Sun letters" - any consonant pronounced with the tip of the tongue. Other letters are called "Moon letters".[7] The letter Jeem (ج) is a special case. It is usually a Sun letter for speakers pronouncing it as [ʒ] but not for those pronouncing it as [d͡ʒ].[6][8]
| Moon letter | البيت | il-bēt |
|---|---|---|
| Sun letter (assimilation) | الشمس | iš-šams |
| Letter Jeem (ج) | الجمعة | il-jumʕa [ɪl.ˈd͡ʒʊm.ʕa] / ij-jumʕa [ɪʒ.ˈʒʊm.ʕa] |
| Consonant cluster | الكتاب | le-ktāb |
Nouns
Case
There is no case marking in Levantine (contrary to Classical Arabic).[9]
Gender
Nouns can be either masculine or feminine. In the singular, most feminine nouns end with Tāʼ marbūṭah (ـة). This is pronounced as –a or -e depending on the preceding consonant. Generally, -a after guttural (ح خ ع غ ق ه ء) and emphatic consonants (ر ص ض ط ظ), and -e after other consonants.[10]
Number
Nouns in Levantine can be singular, dual or plural.[11][10]
The dual is invariably formed with suffix -ēn (ين-).[12][10] The dual is often used in a non-exact sense, especially in temporal and spatial nouns:
- جمعة, jumʕa, one week
- جمعتين, jumʕatēn, a couple of weeks (lit. 'two weeks')[9]
For nouns referring to humans, the regular (also called sound) masculine plural is formed with the suffix -īn. The regular feminine plural is formed with -āt. The masculine plural is used to refer to a group with both gender. However, there are many broken plurals (also called internal plurals),[13][10] in which the consonantal root of the singular is changed (nonconcatenative morphology). These plural patterns are shared with other varieties of Arabic and may also be applied to foreign borrowings: such as faːtuːra (plural: fwaːtiːr), from the Italian fattura, invoice.[9] The plural of loanwords may be sound or broken.[14] Several patterns of broken plurals exist and it is not possible to exactly predict them.[15]
Inanimate objects take feminine singular agreement in the plural, for verbs, attached pronouns, and adjectives.[16]
Some foreign words that designate weights and measures such as sαnti (centimeter), šēkel (shekel), and kīlo (kilometer/kilogram) (but not mitr, meter, which behaves like other Arabic nouns) are invariable. The dual form is not used and numbers 3–10 don't lose their final vowel when followed by these nouns:
- šēkel: 1 shekel
- tnēn šēkel: 2 shekels
- talāte šēkel: 3 shekels
- ʕašara šēkel: 10 shekels[17]
| Pattern (Arabic) | Pattern (Latin) | Example | English meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| ـَ و ا ـِ ـ | CawāCeC | شارع šāreʕ شوارع šawāreʕ | street streets |
| أَ ـْ ـ ا ـ | ʔaCCāC | شخص šaḵṣ أشخاص ʾašḵāṣ | person people |
| ـَ ـ ا ـِ ي ـ | CaCāCīC | دكان dukkān دكاكين dakākīn | convenience store convenience stores |
| ـُ ـُ و ـ | CuCūC | حرف ḥarf حروف ḥurūf | letter letters |
| ـُ ـَ ـ | CuCaC | قصة ʾuṣṣa قصص ʾuṣaṣ | story stories |
| ـِ ـَ ـ | CiCaC | فريق farīq فرق firaq | team teams |
| ـُ ـَ ـ ا | CuCaCa | مدير mudīr مدرا mudara | manager managers |
| ـُ ـّ ا ـ | CuC2C2āC | طالب ṭāleb طلاب ṭullāb | student students |
| أَ ـْ ـِ ـ ة | ʔaCCiCe | جهاز jihāz أجهزة ʾajhize | electrical device electrical devices |
| ـُ ـُ ـ | CuCoC | مدينة madīne مدن mudon | city cities |
| ـُ ـْ ـ ا ن | CuCCān | قميص ʾamīṣ قمصان ʾumṣān | dress shirt dress shirts |
| أَ ـْ ـِ ـ ا ء | ʔaCCiCāʔ | صديق ṣadīq أصدقاء ʾaṣdiqāʾ | friend friends |
Nominal sentences
Phrasal word order is head-dependent:[1]
- Noun-Genitive
- Noun-Adjective
- Noun-Relative clause.
The genitive relationship is formed by putting the nouns next to each other,[18] this construct is called Iḍāfah (lit. 'addition'). The first noun is always indefinite. If an indefinite noun is added to a definite noun, it results in a new definite compound noun.[19][20][21]
Besides possessiveness, the Iḍāfah construct can be used to specify or define the first term.[19]
Possession can also be expressed with تبع, tabaC, especially for loanwords:
- my dog: kalbi or il-kalb tabaCi,
- the neighbors' house: bēt il-jirᾱn or il-bēt tabaC il-jirᾱn
- your radio: ir-rᾱdyo tabaCkom.[22]
There is no limit to the number of nouns that can be strung together in an Iḍāfah. However, it is rare to have three or more words, except with very common or monosyllabic nouns.[18]
The Iḍāfah construct is different from the noun-adjective structure. In an Iḍāfah construct, the two nouns might be different in terms of their definiteness: the first is indefinite, the second is usually definite. Whereas adjectives always agree with nouns in definiteness.[23][19]
The first term must be in the construct state: if it ends in the feminine marker (/-ah/, or /-ih/), it changes to (/-at/, /-it/) in pronunciation (i.e. ة pronounced as "t"). Whereas in a noun-adjective string, the pronunciation would remain (/-ah/, /-ih/).[19]
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| كتاب إستاذ | ktāb ʾistāz | a book of a/the teacher | Iḍāfah of two indefinite nouns |
| كتاب الإستاذ | ktāb il-ʾistāz | the book of the teacher | Iḍāfah of indefinite + definite noun |
| كتاب الإستاذ الجديد | ktāb il-ʾistāz le-jdīd | the new book of the teacher OR the book of the new teacher | The adjective is definite, because the Iḍāfah is definite. Both meanings are possible, to avoid confusion the preposition -la can be used to split the Iḍāfah. |
| الكتاب الجديد للإستاذ | le-ktāb le-jdīd l-il-ʾistāz | the new book of the teacher | Split Iḍāfah |
| الكتاب للإستاذ الجديد | le-ktāb l-il-ʾistāz le-jdīd | the book of the new teacher | Split Iḍāfah |
| الكتاب الجديد تبع الإستاذ | le-ktāb le-jdīd tabaC il-ʾistāz | the teacher's new book | Use of تبع, tabaC to avoid confusion. |
| كتاب إستاذ العربي | ktāb ʾistāz il-ʕarabi | the book of the teacher of Arabic | Chained Iḍāfah, only the last noun takes the definite article |
| مجلة جديدة | majalle jdīde | a new magazine | Noun-adjective: ة pronounced as "ih" |
| مجلة الإستاذ | majallet il-ʾistāz | the magazine of the teacher | ة pronounced as "t" in construct state |
| بيت خالد | bēt ḵālid | Khalid's house | With a proper noun: possessiveness |
| مدينة نيويورك | madīnet nyū-yōrk | New York City | First noun ends with ah (pronounced as "t"), second is a proper noun |
| مدينة زغيرة | madīne zḡīre | a small town/city | Noun-adjective, ة pronounced as "ah" |
| صحن حمص | ṣaḥen ḥummuṣ | hummus dish |
Verbal nouns
Verbal nouns (also called gerunds or masdar[24]) play an important role in Levantine. Derived from a verb root, they can be used as a noun ("food") or as a gerund ("eating").[25] Verbal nouns do not exist as infinitives, they are not part of the verbal system but of the lexicon.[3]
| Form | Verb pattern | Verbal noun pattern | Example[26] | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Most common | Variants | Verb | Verbal noun | ||
| Form I | C1vC2vC3 | C1vC2C3 | Many variants | درس daras (to study, to learn) | درس dars (a lesson) |
| Form II | C1aC2C2aC3 | taC1C2īC3 | taC1C2iC3a / tiC1C2āC3 | قدّم qaddam (to present, to offer) | تقديم taqdīm (a presentation, presenting) |
| Form III | C1v̄C2aC3 | muC1v̄C2aC3a | C1iC2v̄C3 | ساعد sāʕad (to help) | مساعدة musāʕada (help, assistance) |
| Form IV | ʔaC1C2aC3 | ʔiC1C2āC3 | أقنع ʾaqnaʿ (to convince) | إقناع ʾiqnāʿ (convincing) | |
| Form V | tC1aC2C2aC3 | taC1aC2C2uC3 | تجنب tjannab (to avoid) | تجنّب tajannub (avoiding, avoidance) | |
| Form VI | tC1v̄C2aC3 | taC1v̄C2uC3 | تجاهل tjāhal (to ignore) | تجاهل tajāhul (ignoring) | |
| Form VII | nC1aC2aC3 (North) inC1aC2aC3 (South) | inC1iC2v̄C3 | انبسط inbasaṭ (to be happy, to have fun) | انبساط inbisāṭ (happiness) | |
| Form VIII | C1tvC2vC3 (North) iC1tvC2vC3 (South) | iC1tiC2v̄C3 | اقترح iqtaraḥ (to suggest) | اقتراح iqtirāḥ (a suggestion) | |
| Form IX | C1C2aC3C3 (North) iC1C2aC3C3 (South) | iC1C2iC3āC3 | احمر iḥmarr (to blush, to turn red) | احمرار iḥmirār (blushing, turning red) | |
| Form X | staC1C2aC3 (North) istaC1C2aC3 (South) | istiC1C2āC3 | استعمل istaʕmal (to use) | استعمال istiʕmāl (use, usage) | |
Numerals
Cardinal numbers
Number one and two have a masculine and feminine form. When used with a noun, they rather follow it like an adjective than precede it for emphasis.[27] An exception are uncountable nouns.[28] When the number 2 is accompanied by a noun, the dual form is usually used: waladēn, 2 boys.[27]
Numbers larger than 3 do not have gender but may have two forms, one used before nouns and one used independently.[29] In particular, numbers between 3 and 10 lose their final vowel before a noun.[27]
Numbers from 3 to 10 are followed by plural nouns. Numbers from 11 to 99 are followed by a singular.[29][30][27]
Numbers 100 and onwards follow the same rule as numbers 0–99 based on their last two digits. 100 and 101 are followed by a singular, 102 is followed by a dual (102 books: miyye u-ktābēn), 103–110 by a plural, and 111–199 is like 11–99, followed by a singular.[31]
Before a small set of nouns (e.g. ألف, ʾalf, "thousand") the independent form is used in construct state (ة pronounced as "t"). مية (miyye, "hundred") is always in construct state before nouns.[28]
| Number | Gender | Independent | Followed by noun | Number of noun |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 / ٠ | صفر ṣifr | Plural | ||
| 1 / ١ | m | واحد wāḥad | Singular | |
| f | واحدة waḥde | |||
| 2 / ٢ | m | تنين tnēn | Dual or plural | |
| f | تنتين tintēn | |||
| 3 / ٣ | تلاتة talāte (South) تلاتة tlēte (North) | تلت talat/tlat (South) تلات tlēt/tlat (North) | Plural | |
| 4 / ٤ | أربعة ʾarbaʕa | أربع ʾarbaʕ | ||
| 5 / ٥ | خمسة ḵamse | خمس ḵams | ||
| 6 / ٦ | ستة sitte | ست sitt | ||
| 7 / ٧ | سبعة sabʕa | سبع sabʕ | ||
| 8 / ٨ | تمانية tamānye (South) تمانة tmēne (North) | تمن taman/tman (South) تمن tman/tmin (North) | ||
| 9 / ٩ | تسع tisʕa | تسع tisʕ | ||
| 10 / ١٠ | عشرة ʕašara | عشر ʕašr | ||
| 11 / ١١ | احدعش (i)ḥdaʕš | احدعشر (i)ḥdaʕšar | Singular | |
| 12 / ١٢ | تنعش tnaʕš | تنعشر tnaʕšar | ||
| 20 / ٢٠ | عشرين ʕišrīn | |||
| 21 / ٢١ | واحد وعشرين wāhad w-ʕišrīn | |||
| 30 / ٣٠ | تلاتين talatīn (South) / tlētīn (North) | |||
| 100 / ١٠٠ | مية miyye | مية mīt | ||
| 101 / ١٠١ | مية وواحد miyye u-wāḥad | مية و- miyye u- + Singular noun | ||
| 102 / ١٠٢ | مية وتنين miyye u-tnēn | مية و- miyye u- + Dual noun | Dual | |
| 103 / ١٠٣ | مية وتلاتة miyye u-talāte | مية وتلت miyye u-talat | Plural | |
| 200 / ٢٠٠ | ميتين mītēn | Singular | ||
| 300 / ٣٠٠ | تلتمية t(a)lat-miyye | تلتمية t(a)lat-mīt | ||
| 1000 / ١٠٠٠ | ألف ʾalf | |||
| 2000 / ٢٠٠٠ | ألفين ʾalfēn | |||
| 3000 / ٣٠٠٠ | تلتة آلاف t(a)latt‿ālāf | |||
| 10000 / ١٠٠٠٠ | عشرة آلاف ʕašert‿ālāf | |||
| 11000 / ١١٠٠٠ | إحدشر ألف ʾiḥdaʕšar ʾalf | |||
| 100000 / ١٠٠٠٠٠ | مية ألف mīt ʾalf | |||
Ordinal numbers and fractions
Ordinal numbers can either precede or follow the noun. If they precede the noun the masculine form is used and the definite article is dropped.[28]
Ordinal numbers above 10 do not exist, instead the cardinal numbers are used following the noun.[28]
| Ordinal number | Fraction | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | Masculine or followed by noun | Feminine | Plural | Number | Singular | Plural | |
| 1 / ١ | أول ʾawwal | أولى ʾūla | أوائل ʾawāʾel or أولى ʾuwala | colspan="3" | |||
| 2 / ٢ | تاني tāni | تانية tānye | تانين tānyīn | 1⁄2 / ١⁄٢ | نص nuṣṣ | أنصاص (ʾa)nṣāṣ | |
| 3 / ٣ | تالت tālet | تالتة tālte | تالتين tāltīn | 1⁄3 / ١⁄٣ | تلت tult | تلات tlāt | |
| 4 / ٤ | رابع rābeʕ | رابعة rābʕa | رابعين rābʕīn | 1⁄4 / ١⁄٤ | ربع rubʕ | رباع rbāʕ | |
| 5 / ٥ | خامس ḵāmes | خامسة ḵāmse | خامسين ḵāmsīn | 1⁄5 / ١⁄٥ | خمس ḵums | أخماس (ʾa)ḵmās | |
| 6 / ٦ | سادس sādes | سادسة sādse | سادسين sādsīn | 1⁄6 / ١⁄٦ | سدس suds | أسداس (ʾa)sdās | |
| 7 / ٧ | سابع sābeʕ | سابعة sābʕa | سابعين sābʕīn | 1⁄7 / ١⁄٧ | سبع subʕ | أسباع (ʾa)sbāʕ | |
| 8 / ٨ | تامن tāmen | تامنة tāmne | تامنين tāmnīn | 1⁄8 / ١⁄٨ | تمن tumn | أتمان (ʾa)tmān | |
| 9 / ٩ | تاسع tāseʕ | تاسعة tāsʕa | تاسعين tāsʕīn | 1⁄9 / ١⁄٩ | تسع tusʕ | أتساع (ʾa)tsāʕ | |
| 10 / ١٠ | عاشر ʕāšer | عاشرة ʕāšra | عاشرين ʕāšrīn | 1⁄10 / ١⁄١٠ | عشر ʕušr | أشار (ʾa)ʕšār | |
Adjectives
Form
Many adjectives have the pattern فعيل (fʕīl / CCīC or faʕīl / CaCīC) but other patterns are also possible.[20]
Adjectives derived from nouns by the suffix ـي (-i) are called Nisba adjectives. Their feminine form ends in ـية (-iyye) and the plural in ـيين (-iyyīn).[32]
Gender
Adjectives typically have three form: a masculine singular, a feminine singular, and a plural which does not distinguish gender. In most adjectives the feminine is formed through addition of -a/e, sometimes dropping an unstressed short vowel.[33]
Number
Nouns in dual have adjectives in plural.[20]
The plural of adjectives is either regular ending in ـين (-īn) or is an irregular "broken" plural. It is used with nouns referring to people. For non-human / inanimate / abstract nouns, adjectives can use either the plural or the singular feminine form regardless of the noun's gender.[33][20][34][16]
Word order
Adjectives follow the noun they modify and agree with it in definiteness. Adjectives without an article after a definite noun express a clause with the invisible copula "to be".[35]
| بيت كبير bēt kbīr | a big house |
| البيت الكبير il-bēt le-kbīr | the big house |
| البيت كبير il-bēt kbīr | the house is big |
There is no dominant order for degree words and adjectives: Adverbs of degree like كتير (ktīr, "very") and شوي (šwayy, "a little / a bit") can either precede or follow the adjective.[1]
Superlative and comparative
There are no separate comparative and superlative forms but the elative is used in both cases.[33]
The elative is formed by adding a hamza at the beginning of the adjective and replace the vowels by "a" (pattern: أفعل ʾafʕal / aCCaC).[20] Adjective endings in ي (i) and و (u) are changed into ی (a). If the second and third consonant in the root are the same, they are geminated (pattern: أفلّ ʾafall / ʾaCaCC).[36]
Speakers who pronounce ق as hamza might pronounced the elative prefix as "h" in order to avoid two consecutive hamzas.[37]
| Adjective | Elative | |
|---|---|---|
| Regular | كبير kbīr | أكبر ʾakbar |
| سهل sahl | أسهل ʾashal | |
| قديم ʾadīm | أقدم ʾaʾdam / haʾdam | |
| Gemination | جديد jdīd | أجدّ ʾajadd |
| قليل ʾalīl | أقلّ ʾaʾall / haʾall | |
| Final i/u | عالي ʕāli | أعلى ʾaʕla |
| حلو ḥilu | أحلى ʾaḥla | |
| Irregular | منيح mnīḥ / كويس kwayyes | أحسن 'aḥsan (from حسن ḥasan) |
When an elative modifies a noun, it precedes the noun an no definite article is used.[38]
In order to compare two things, the word من (min, lit. 'from') is used in the sense of "than" in English.[38]
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English |
|---|---|---|
| أحسن إشي | ʾaḥsan ʾiši | the best thing |
| هالإشي أحسن | ha-l-ʾiši ʾaḥsan | this thing is better / the best |
| هالإشي أحسن من إشي تاني | ha-l-ʾiši ʾaḥsan min ʾiši tāni | this thing is better than something else |
Not all adjectives can form an elative, especially those that are participles or derived from nouns. In this case, أكتر (ʾaktar, "more, most") is used.[33]
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English |
|---|---|---|
| مجنون | majnūn | crazy |
| مجنون أكتر | majnūn ʾaktar | crazier / craziest |
| هو مجنون أكتر منك | huwwe majnūn ʾaktar minnak | he is crazier than you |
| أكتر واحد مجنون | ʾaktar wāḥad majnūn | the craziest one |
Prepositions
Prepositions must precede nominals in Levantine.[4]
| Levantine | English |
|---|---|
| بـ bi- | with; in, at |
| فِي fī | in, at |
| مَعَ maʕ | with, along with |
| مِن min | from; than |
| لـ la- | to; for |
| عـ ʕa- / على ʕāla | on, upon; to; about |
| قبل ʾabl | before |
| بعد baʕd | after |
| قدّام ʾuddām | in front of |
| ورا wara | behind |
| فوق fōʾ | above, over |
| تحت taḥt | below, under |
| بين bēn | between |
Pronouns
Feminine plural forms modifying human females are found mostly in rural and Bedouin areas. They are not mentioned below.[39]
Personal pronouns
Levantine has eight persons, and therefore eight pronouns. Dual forms that exist in Modern Standard Arabic do not exist in Levantine, the plural is used instead. Because conjugated verbs indicate the subject with a prefix and/or a suffix, independent subject pronouns are usually not necessary and are mainly used for emphasis.[40][41]
Independent personal pronouns
| Levantine independent personal pronouns[41][42] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | ||
| 1st person (m/f) | أنا ʾana | احنا ʾiḥna (South) / نحنا niḥna (North) | |
| 2nd person | m | انت ʾinta | انتو / انتوا ʾintu |
| f | انتي ʾinti | ||
| 3rd person | m | هو huwwe | هم humme (South) / هن hinne (North) |
| f | هي hiyye | ||
Direct object and possessive pronouns
Direct object pronouns are indicated by suffixes attached to the conjugated verb. Their form depends whether the verb ends with a consonant or a vowel. Suffixed to nouns, these pronouns express possessive.[43][41]
| Levantine enclitic pronouns, direct object and possessive[41] | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |||
| after consonant | after vowel | |||
| 1st person | after verb | ـني -ni | ـنا -na | |
| else | ـِي -i | ـي -y | ||
| 2nd person | m | ـَك -ak | ـك -k | ـكُن -kun (North) ـكُم -kom ـكو -ku (South) |
| f | ـِك -ik | ـكِ -ki | ||
| 3rd person | m | و -u (North) ـُه -o (South) | ـه (silent)[b] | ـُن -(h/w/y)un (North) ـهُم -hom (South) |
| f | ـا -a (North) ـها -ha (South) | ـا -(h/w/y)a (North) ـها -ha (South) | ||
If a pronoun is already attached on the end of a word, the second pronoun is attached to يا yā (after a vowel) / iyā- (after a consonant), for instance: بدي ياك beddi yaak (I want you (m)).[44][45]
Indirect object pronouns
Indirect object pronouns (dative) are suffixed to the conjugated verb. They are form by adding an ل (-l) and then the possessive suffix to the verb.[39] They precede object pronouns if present:
- jāb il-jarīde la-ʔabūy: he brought the newspaper to my father,
- jāb-ha la-ʔabūy: he brought it to my father,
- jab-lo il-jarīde: he brought him the newspaper,
- jab-lo yyā-ha: he brought him it.[39][45]
| Levantine indirect object pronoun suffixes[41] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | ||
| 1st person (m/f) | ـلي -li | ـلنا -lna | |
| 2nd person | m | لَك -lak | ـلكُن -lkun (North) ـلكُم -lkom, ـلكو -lku (South) |
| f | ـِلك -lik | ||
| 3rd person | m | لو -lu (North) لُه -lo (South) | ـلُن -lun (North) ـلهُم -lhom (South) |
| f | ـلا -la (North) ـلها -lha (South) | ||
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns have three referential types: immediate, proximal, and distal. The distinction between proximal and distal demonstratives is of physical, temporal, or metaphorical distance. The genderless and numberless immediate demonstrative article ها ha is translated by "this/the", to designate something immediately visible or accessible.[46]
| Levantine demonstrative pronouns | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | ||
| Proximal (this, these) | m | هادا hāda / هاد hād (South, Syria) هيدا hayda (Lebanon) | هدول hadōl (South, Syria) هيدول haydōl / هودي hawdi (Lebanon) |
| f | هادي hādi / هاي hāy (South) هيّ hayy (Syria) هيدي haydi (Lebanon) | ||
| Distal (that, those) | m | هداك hadāk (South, Syria) هيداك haydāk (Lebanon) | هدولاك hadōlāk (South) هدوليك hadōlīk (Syria) هيدوليك haydōlīk (Lebanon) |
| f | هديك hadīk (South, Syria) هيديك haydīk (Lebanon) | ||
Interrogative pronouns
| Levantine | English |
|---|---|
| مين mīn | who |
| لمين la-mīn | whose |
| شو šū / إيش ʾēš (South) | what |
| لشو la-šu | for what |
| ليش lēš / ليه lē (Lebanon) | why |
| أيّ ʾayy | which |
| إيمتى ʾēmta / إمتى ʾimta (Lebanon) | when |
| وين wēn | where |
| لوين la-wēn | where to |
| من وين min wēn / منين mnēn | where from |
| كيف kīf / شلون šlōn (Syria) | how |
| قدّيش ʾaddēš / قدّيه ʾaddē (Lebanon) | how much |
| كم kam | how many |
| كل قدّيش kull/kill ʾaddēš / كم مرّة kam marra | how often |
Relative pronouns
The relative pronoun, invariable for number and gender, is اللي (illi).[47]
Verbs
Root
Like Arabic verbs, most Levantine verbs are based on a triliteral root (also called radical) made of three consonants (therefore also called triconsonantal root). The set of consonants communicates the basic meaning of a verb, e.g. k-t-b 'write', q-r-’ 'read', ’-k-l 'eat'. Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as mood (e.g. indicative, subjunctive, imperative), voice (active or passive), and functions such as causative, intensive, or reflexive.[48]
Quadriliteral roots are less common, but often used to coin new vocabulary or to Arabicize foreign words.[49][50]
The base form is the third-person masculine singular of the perfect (also called past) tense.[51]
Verb forms
Almost all Levantine verbs can be categorized in one of ten verb forms (also called verb measures,[52] stems,[53] patterns,[54] or types[55]). Form I, the most common one, serves as a base for the other nine forms. Each form carries a different verbal idea, relative to the meaning of its root. Technically, 10 verbs can be constructed from any given triconsonantal root. However, all of those ten forms may not be used in practice by speakers.[48] After Form I, Forms II, V, VII, and X are the most common ones.[53]
| Form/Measure/Stem | Tendency of meaning | Perfect pattern | Imperfect pattern | Example | Root of the example | Note |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Form I | Active or stative verb (base form) | C1vC2vC3 | -C1vC2vC3 | عمل ʕimil (to do, to make) | ع م ل ʕ-m-l (related to work) | |
| Form II | Causes action (Causative), shows intensity (Augmentative), or may indicates continuing action | C1aC2C2aC3 | -C1aC2C2eC3 | علّم ʕallam (to teach) | ع ل م ʕ-l-m (related to knowledge) | Most productive form[20] |
| Form III | Active in meaning or shows attempt; focus is on one-sided action | C1v̄C2aC3 | -C1v̄C2eC3 | عامل ʕāmal (to treat) | ع م ل ʕ-m-l (related to work) | |
| Form IV | Causes action, similar to Form II | ʔaC1C2aC3 | -C1C2eC3 | أعلن ʔaʕlan (to announce) | ع ل ن ʔ-l-n (related to publicity) | Rare, limited to borrowings from MSA |
| Form V | Reflexive/passive/mediopassive meaning for transitive Form II verbs | tC1aC2C2aC3 | -tC1aC2C2aC3 | تعلّم tʕallam (to learn) | ع ل م ʕ-l-m (related to knowledge) | Usually intransitive |
| Form VI | Reflexive/passive meaning for Form III or active in meaning | tC1v̄C2aC3 | -tC1v̄C2eC3 | تعامل tʕāmal (to work or deal with) | ع م ل ʕ-m-l (related to work) | Usually intransitive |
| Form VII | Reflexive/passive meaning for Form I or no particular tendency of meaning | nC1aC2aC3 (North) inC1aC2aC3 (South) | -nC1ǝC2eC3 -nC1aːC2 in medial glide roots | انبسط inbasaṭ (to have fun, enjoy oneself) | ب س ط b-s-ṭ (related to spreading and extending) | |
| Form VIII | Active, reflexive, or passive in meaning | C1tvC2vC3 (North) iC1tvC2vC3 (South) | -C1tvC2vC3 | اعترف iʕtaraf (to confess) | ع ر ف ʕ-r-f (related to awareness) | Not productive[20] |
| Form IX | Inchoative verbs from adjectives: Changing of color or physical handicap | C1C2aC3C3 (North) iC1C2aC3C3 (South) | -C1C2aC3C3 | اِبْيَضَّ ibyaḍḍa (to become white) | ب ي ض b-y-ḍ (related to whiteness) | Very rare, replaced by ṣār "to become" + adjective[56] |
| Form X | Sought to do something or believe something to be big, close, etc. (Denominal or deadjectival) | staC1C2aC3 (North) istaC1C2aC3 (South) | -staC1C2eC3 | استعمل istaʕmal (to use) | ع م ل ʕ-m-l (related to work) | Often transitive verbs[20] |
Aldrich also defines verb forms XI (for verbs based on quadriliteral roots) and XII (for passive or intransitive version of form XI verbs).[52]
In addition to its form, each verb has a "quality":
- Sound (or regular): 3 distinct radicals, neither the second nor the third is w or y,
- Verbs containing the radicals w or y are called weak. They can be either:
- Hollow: verbs with w or y as the second radical, which can become a long a in some forms, or
- Defective: verbs with w or y as the third radical, treated as a vowel,
- Geminate (or doubled): the second and third radicals are identical, remaining together as a double consonant.[52]
Some irregular verbs do not fit into any of the verb forms.[52]
The initial i in verb forms VII, VIII, IX, X drops when the preceding word ends in a vowel or at the beginning of a sentence.[7]
Regular verb conjugation
The Levantine verb has only two tenses: past (perfect) and present (also called imperfect, b-imperfect, or bi-imperfect). The future tense is an extension of the present tense. The negative imperative is the same as the negative present with helping verb (imperfect). The grammatical person and number as well as the mood are designated by a variety of prefixes and suffixes. The following table shows the paradigm of a sound Form I verb, katab (كتب) 'to write'.[48]
The b-imperfect is usually used for the indicative mood (non-past present, habitual/general present, narrative present, planned future actions, or potential). The prefix b- is deleted in the subjunctive mood, usually after various modal verbs, auxiliary verbs, pseudo-verbs, prepositions, and particles.[20][56][57][58]
In the following table, the accented vowel is in bold.
| Conjugation of كتب, 'to write' (sound form I verb) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| North Levantine[59] | South Levantine[60][61] | |||||||
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |||
| Past[c] | Masc. | كتبت katabit | كتبت katabit | كتب katab | كتبت katabt | كتبت katabt | كتب katab | |
| Fem. | كتبتي katabti | كتبت katabit | كتبتي katabti | كتبت katbat | ||||
| Plural | كتبنا katabna | كتبتو katabtu | كتبو katabu | كتبنا katabna | كتبتو katabtu | كتبو katabu | ||
| Present[d] | Masc. | بكتب biktub | بتكتب btiktub | بيكتب byiktub | بكتب baktob | بتكتب btuktob | بكتب buktob | |
| Fem. | بتكتبي btiktbi | بتكتب btiktub | بتكتبي btuktobi | بتكتب btuktob | ||||
| Plural | منكتب mniktub | بتكتبو btiktbu | بيكتبو byiktbu | منكتب mnuktob بنكتب bnuktob [62][e] | بتكتبو btuktobu | بكتبو buktobu | ||
| Present with helping verb[f] | Masc. | اكتب iktub | تكتب tiktub | يكتب yiktub | أكتب ʾaktob | تكتب tuktob | يكتب yuktob | |
| Fem. | تكتبي tiktbi | تكتب tiktub | تكتبي tuktobi | تكتب tuktob | ||||
| Plural | نكتب niktub | تكتبو tiktbu | يكتبو yiktbu | نكتب nuktob | تكتبو tuktobu | يكتبو yuktobu | ||
| Positive imperative[g] | Masc. | rowspan="3" | كتوب ktūb | rowspan="3" | rowspan="3" | أكتب ʾuktob | rowspan="3" | |
| Fem. | كتبي ktibi | أكتب ʾuktobi | ||||||
| Plural | كتبو ktibu | أكتب ʾuktobu | ||||||
| Active participle[h] | Masc. | كاتب kētib | كاتب kāteb | |||||
| Fem. | كاتبة kētbi | كاتبة kātbe | ||||||
| Plural | كاتبين kētbīn | كاتبين kātbīn | ||||||
| Passive participle[i] | Masc. | مكتوب maktūb | مكتوب maktūb | |||||
| Fem. | مكتوبة maktūba | مكتوبة maktūba | ||||||
| Plural | مكتوبين maktūbīn | مكتوبين maktūbīn | ||||||
| Table of prefixes, affixes, and suffixes added to the base form (for sound form I verbs with stressed prefixes)[63] | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual/Plural | |||||||
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |||
| Past[c] | M | -it | -it | ∅ (base form) | -na | -tu | -u | |
| F | -ti | -it (North) -at (South) | ||||||
| Present[d] | M | bi- (North) ba- (South) | bti- | byi- (North)[42] bi- (South) | mni- | bti- -u | byi- -u (North)[42] bi- -u (South) | |
| F | bti- -i | bti- | ||||||
| Present with helping verb[f] | M | i- (North) a- (South) | ti- | yi- | ni- | ti- -u | yi- -u | |
| F | ti- -i | ti- | ||||||
| Positive imperative[g] | M | rowspan="2" | ∅ (Lengthening the present tense vowel, North) i- (Subjunctive without initial consonant, South) | rowspan="2" | rowspan="2" | -u (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North) i- -u (South) | rowspan="2" | |
| F | -i (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North) i- -i (South) | |||||||
| Active participle[h] | M | -ē- (North) or -ā- (South) after the first consonant | -īn (added to the masculine form) | |||||
| F | -e/i or -a (added to the masculine form) | |||||||
| Passive participle[i] | M | ma- and -ū- after the second consonant | ||||||
| F | -a (added to the masculine form) | |||||||
In the perfect tense, the first person singular and second person masculine singular are identical. For regular verbs, the third-person feminine singular is written identically but stressed differently.[64]
Depending on regions and accents, the -u can be pronounced -o and the -i can be pronounced -é.[65]
In Southern Levantine dialects, the vowel of the suffix in past tense 3rd person feminine as well as the prefix in the present tense 1st person singular is "a" instead of "i". It might be "u" in other persons of the present tense due to vowel harmony.[66]
Active participle
The active participle, also called present participle, is grammatically an adjective derived from a verb. Depending on the context, it can express the present or present continuous (with verbs of motion, location, or mental state), the near future, or the present perfect (past action with a present result).[67] It can also serve as a noun or an adjective.[68]
The active participle can be inflected from the verb based on its verb form.[68]
| Form | Verb pattern | Active participle pattern | Example[69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78] | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verb | Active participle | |||
| Form I | C1vC2vC3 | C1v̄C2vC3 | مسك masak (to grab, to arrest) | ماسك mɑ̄sik (is arresting, has arrested) |
| Form II | C1aC2C2aC3 | mC1aC2C2eC3 | قدّم qaddam (to present, to offer) | مقدّم mqaddem (has presented, a presenter) |
| Form III | C1v̄C2aC3 | mC1v̄C2iC3 | ساعد sāʕad (to help) | مساعد msāʕid (assistant, has helped) |
| Form IV | ʔaC1C2aC3 | miC1C2iC3 | أقنع ʾaqnaʿ (to convince) | مقنع miqniʿ (is convincing, has convinced) |
| Form V | tC1aC2C2aC3 | mitC1aC2C2eC3 | تجنب tjannab (to avoid) | متجنب mitjanneb (is avoiding) |
| Form VI | tC1v̄C2aC3 | mitC1v̄C2aC3 | تجاهل tjāhal (to ignore) | متجاهل mitjāhal (is ignoring) |
| Form VII | nC1aC2aC3 (North) inC1aC2aC3 (South) | minC1aC2eC3 | انبسط inbasaṭ (to be happy, to have fun) | منبسط minbasiṭ (is happy) |
| Form VIII | C1tvC2vC3 (North) iC1tvC2vC3 (South) | minC1tvC2vC3 | اقترح iqtaraḥ (to suggest) | مقترح miqtariḥ (has suggested) |
| Form IX | C1C2aC3C3 (North) iC1C2aC3C3 (South) | miC1C2aC3C3 | احمر iḥmarr (to blush, to turn red) | محمر miḥmarr (is blushing, has turned red) |
| Form X | staC1C2aC3 (North) istaC1C2aC3 (South) | mistaC1C2iC3 | استعمل istaʕmal (to use) | مستعمل imstaʕmil (user, has used) |
Passive participle
The passive participle, also called past participle,[24] has a similar meaning as in English (i.e. sent, written, etc.). It is mostly used as an adjective but it can sometimes be used as a noun. It is inflected from the verb based on its verb form.[79] However, in practice, passive participles are largely limited to verb forms I (CvCvC) and II (CvCCvC), becoming maCCūC for the former and mCaCCaC for the latter.[3]
| Form | Verb pattern | Passive participle pattern | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verb | Passive participle | ||||
| Form I | C1vC2vC3 | maC1C2ūC3 | فتح fataḥ (to open) | مفتوح maftūḥ (opened) | |
| Form II | C1aC2C2aC3 | mC1aC2C2aC3 | رتب rattab (to organize, to tidy up) | مرتب mrattab (organized, neat) | |
| Form III | C1v̄C2aC3 | muC1v̄C2eC3 | فاجأ fājaʔ (to surprise) | مفاجِئ mufājaʔ (surprised) | |
| Form IV | ʔaC1C2aC3 | muC1C2eC3 | أعطى ʔaʕṭa (to give) | معطى muʕṭa (given) | |
| Form V | tC1aC2C2aC3 | Very rarely used | |||
| Form VI | tC1v̄C2aC3 | Very rarely used | |||
| Form VII | nC1aC2aC3 (North) inC1aC2aC3 (South) | Not used | |||
| Form VIII | C1tvC2vC3 (North) iC1tvC2vC3 (South) | muC1tvC2vC3 | اقترح iqtaraḥ (to suggest) | مقترح muqtaraḥ (suggested) | |
| Form IX | C1C2aC3C3 (North) iC1C2aC3C3 (South) | Not used | |||
| Form X | staC1C2aC3 (North) istaC1C2aC3 (South) | mustaC1C2eC3 | استعمل istaʕmal (to use) | مستعمل mustaʕmel (used) | |
Future
There are various ways to express the future. One is by using the present tense (with b- prefix) on its own. Another one is by using بد (bidd-, lit. 'want').[80]
The future tense is formed with the imperfect preceded by the particle رح (raḥ) or by the prefixed particle حـ (ḥa-).[81]
| Way | Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present tense | بروح معك. | barūḥ maʕek. | I'll go with you. |
| bidd- (to want) | بدي أمرق لعنده بكرة. | biddi ʾamroʾ la-ʕindo bukra. | I'm going to go to his house tomorrow. |
| Future tense | رح شوفك بكرة. | raḥ šūfak bukra. | I'll see you tomorrow. |
| حشوفك بكرة. | ḥa-šūfak bukra. |
Present continuous
The present continuous is formed with the progressive particle عم (ʕam) followed by the imperfect, with or without the initial b/m depending on the speaker.[82][83]
| Without b-/m- prefix | With b-/m- prefix | English | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | |
| شو عم تعمل؟ | šū ʕam tiʕmel? | شو عم بتعمل؟ | šū ʕam(ma) btiʕmel? | What are you doing? |
| عم أشرب قهوة. | ʕam ʾašrab ʾahwe. | عم بشرب قهوة. | ʕam bašrab ʾahwe. | I'm drinking coffee. |
It is also common to use the b- prefix only in those forms starting with a vowel (e.g. 1st person singular).[84]
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English |
|---|---|---|
| عم بعمل | ʕam baʕmel | I'm doing |
| عم تعمل | ʕam tiʕmel | you're doing / she's doing |
| عم بعمل / عم يعمل | ʕam biʕmel / ʕam yiʕmel | he's doing |
Helping verbs
After helping verbs (may also be called modal verbs, pseudo-verbs, auxiliary verbs, or prepositional phrases) the imperfect form (also called subjunctive)[f] is used, that is, the form without the initial b/m.[83]
| Levantine | English |
|---|---|
| بد bidd- / badd- | to want |
| ممكن mumkin, قدر qider | can |
| قدر qider / فيـ fī- (North) / ḥəsen | to be able to |
| لازم lazim | must, it is necessary to |
| حب ḥabb | to like |
| بلكي balki / بركي berki | may |
| ممنوع mamnūʿ | it's forbidden to |
| مفروض mafrūḍ / المفروض il-mafrūḍ | should |
| صار ṣār | to start to, to got used to doing |
| بلش ballaš | to begin to |
| فضل fiḍel / bəʾi | to end up |
| ضل ḍall / تم tamm | to keep doing |
| رجع rijeʕ | to start doing again |
| كان kān | used to doing |
Compound tenses
The verb كان (kān) can be followed by another verb, forming compound tenses. Both verbs are conjugated with their subject.[86]
| kān in the past tense | kān in the present tense | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Followed by | Levantine | English | Levantine | English |
| Past tense | كان عمل kān ʕimel | he had done | بكون عمل bikūn ʕimel | he will have done |
| Active participle | كان عامل kān ʕāmel | he had done | بكون عامل bikūn ʕāmel | he will have done |
| Subjunctive | كان يعمل kān yiʕmel | he used to do / he was doing | بكون يعمل bikūn yiʕmel | he will be doing |
| Progressive | كان عم يعمل kān ʕam yiʕmel | he was doing | بكون عم يعمل bikūn ʕam yiʕmel | he will be doing |
| Future tense | كان رح يعمل kān raḥ yiʕmel كان حيعمل kān ḥa-yiʕmel | he was going to do | colspan="2" rowspan="2" | |
| Present tense | كان بعمل kān biʕmel | he would do | ||
Passive voice
Form I verbs often correspond to an equivalent passive form VII verb, with the prefix n-. Form II and form III verbs usually correspond to an equivalent passive on forms V and VI, respectively, with the prefix t-.[52][88]
| Active | Passive | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Verb form | Levantine | English | Verb form | Levantine | English |
| I | مسك masak | to catch | VII | انمسك inmasak | to be caught |
| II | غيّر ḡayyar | to change | V | تغيّر tḡayyar | to be changed |
| III | فاجأ fājaʾ | to surprise | VI | تفاجأ tfājaʾ | to be surprised |
While the verb forms V, VI and VII are common in the simple past and compound tenses, the passive participle (past participle) is preferred in the present tense.[89]
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English | Verb form | Tense |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| الكتاب مكتوب. | le-ktāb maktūb | The book is written. | I | passive participle |
| الكتاب عم بنكتب. | le-ktāb ʕam binkateb | The book is being written. | VII | progressive |
| الكتاب انكتب. | le-ktāb inkatab | The book has been written. / The book was written. | VII | past tense |
| الكتاب كان مكتوب. | le-ktāb kān maktūb | The book was written. | I | kān + passive participle |
| الكتاب رح ينكتب. | le-ktāb raḥ yinkateb | The book will be written. | VII | future |
To have
Levantine does not have a verb "to have". Instead, possession is expressed using the prepositions عند (ʕind, lit. 'at', meaning "to possess") and مع (maʕ, lit. 'with', meaning "to have on oneself"), followed by personal pronoun suffixes. The past indicator ken and the future indicator raH are used to express possession in the past or the future, respectively.[90][91]
| Inflected forms of عند (ʕind, "at", "to possess, to have") | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base form | عند ʕind | ||||
| Personal-pronoun- including forms | singular | plural | |||
| m | f | ||||
| 1st person | عندي ʕindi | عنّا ʕinna | |||
| 2nd person | عندك ʕindak | عندك ʕindek | عندكم ʕindkom (South) / عندكن ʕindkun (North) | ||
| 3rd person | عنده ʕindo (South) / عندو ʕindu (North) | عندها ʕindha (South) / عندا ʕinda (North) | عندهم ʕindhom (South) / عندن ʕindun (North) | ||
| Inflected forms of مع (maʕ, "with", "to have on oneself") | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base form | مع maʕ | ||||
| Personal-pronoun- including forms | singular | plural | |||
| m | f | ||||
| 1st person | معي maʕi | معنا maʕna | |||
| 2nd person | معك maʕak | معك maʕek | معكم maʕkom (South) / معكن maʕkun (North) | ||
| 3rd person | معه maʕo (South) / معو maʕu (North) | معها maʕha (South) / معا maʕa (North) | معهم maʕhom (South) / معن maʕun (North) | ||
To want
Enclitic personal pronouns are suffixed directly to the pseudo-verb بدّ (North: badd- / South: bidd-) to express "to want".[39]
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English |
|---|---|---|
| بدها تشرب قهوة. | bidha tišrab ʾahwe. | She wants to drink coffee. |
| ما بدي ياه. | mā biddi yyā. | I don't want it. |
Adverbs
Levant does not distinguish between adverbs and adjectives in adverbial function. Almost any adjective can be used as an adverb: منيح (mnīḥ, ‘good’) vs. نمتي منيح؟ (nimti mnīḥ, ‘Did you sleep well?’) Adverbs from MSA, showing the suffix -an, are often used, e.g. أبدا (ʾabadan, ‘at all’).[3] Adverbs often appear after the verb or the adjective. كتير (ktīr, ‘very’) can be positioned after or before the adjective.[3]
Adverbs of manner can usually be formed using bi- followed by the nominal form: سرعة (b-sirʿa, ‘fast, quickly’, lit. 'with speed').[57]
| Levantine | English |
|---|---|
| إيمتى ʾēmta | when (interrogative) |
| اليوم il-yōm | today |
| بكرة bukra | tomorrow |
| بعد بكرة baʕd bukra | the day after tomorrow |
| مبارح mbāreḥ | yesterday |
| أول مبارح ʾawwal mbāriḥ / قبل مبارح ʾabl mbāreḥ | the day before yesterday |
| هلا halla(ʾ) (common Levantine) / هسا hassa (Amman) / هلقيت halʾēt (Jerusalem) | now |
| بكير bakkīr | early |
| بعدين baʕdēn | afterwards |
| على بكرة ʕala bukra | early in the morning |
| وقتها waʾt-ha | at that time |
| الصبح iṣ-ṣubḥ | in the morning or this morning |
| دايما dāyman / على طول ʕala ṭūl (Damascus) | always |
| لسا lissa / بعد baʕd (Beirut) | still / not yet |
| هون hōn | here |
| هناك hunāk (Amman) / هونيك honīk (Beirut) / هنيك hnīk (Damascus) | there |
| هيك hēk | like this |
| على مهل ʕala mahl / شوي شوي šway šway / بهدوء bi-hudūʾ | slowly |
| كتير ktīr | very |
| عالآخر ʕa-lʾāxir | totally |
| قوام ʾawām | quickly |
| حاجة ḥāje | enough! |
| بس bass | only |
| كمان kamān(e) | also |
| دغري duḡri | straight on |
| لألله laʾalla | lit. 'to God', used as an intensifier |
| عادي ʕādi | lit. 'ordinary' |
| عشان هيك ʕašān hēk | therefore |
| مبلا mbala | it is so |
| أكيد ʾakīd | assuredly |
| يمكن yimken / بركي barki | maybe |
Negation
لا lā and لأ laʔ mean “no.”[92]
Verbs and prepositional phrases can be negated by the particle ما mā / ma either on its own or, in South Levantine, together with the suffix ـش -iš at the end of the verb or prepositional phrase. In Palestinian, it is also common to negate verbs by the suffix ـش -iš only.[92]
| Without -š | With -š | English | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | |
| ما كتب. | mā katab. | ما كتبش. | ma katab-š. | He didn't write. |
| ما بحكي إنكليزي. | mā baḥki ʾinglīzi. | ما بحكيش إنكليزي. | ma baḥkī-š ʾinglīzi. | I don't speak English. |
| ما تنسى! | mā tinsa! | ما تنساش! | ma tinsā-š! | Don't forget! |
| ما بده ييجي عالحفلة. | mā biddo yīji ʕa-l-ḥafle. | colspan="2" | He doesn't want to come to the party. | |
مش miš or in Syrian Arabic مو mū negates adjectives (including active participles), demonstratives, and nominal phrases.[93][92]
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English |
|---|---|---|
| أنا مش فلسطيني. | ʾana miš falasṭīni. | I'm not Palestinian. |
| مش عارفة. | miš ʕārfe. | I (fem.) don't know. |
| هادا مش منيح. | hāda miš mnīḥ. | That's not good. |
The particles عم (ʕam) and رح (raḥ) can be negated with either ما mā or مش miš.
| Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | English |
|---|---|---|
| ما رح أروح. | mā raḥ ʾarūḥ. | I won't go. |
| مش رح أروح. | miš raḥ ʾarūḥ. |
Negative copula
North Levantine has a negative copula formed by ما mā / ma and a suffixed pronoun.[92]
| Negative copula in Levantine[92] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | ||
| 1st person (m/f) | ماني māni | مانا māna | |
| 2nd person | m | مانَك mānak | مانكُن mānkon |
| f | مانِك mānek | ||
| 3rd person | m | مانو māno | مانلُن mānon |
| f | مانا māna | ||
Subordination
Relative clauses are formed with the particle yalli/illi/halli (the one who) when definite things are being described. It can be used either for people (who) or objects (that, which).[94][95][96]
If the noun to which the relative pronoun refers is indefinite and non specific, the relative clause is linked without any coordinating conjunction and is indistinguishable from an independent sentence.[97][95][96]
| English | Levantine (Arabic) | Levantine (Latin) | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| I saw the boy who was playing football. | شفت الولد اللي كان يلعب فطبول | šuft il-walad illi kān yilʕab faṭbōl. | Definite subject: use of illi |
| I saw a girl playing football. | شفت بنت كانت تلعب فطبول | šuft bint kānat tilʕab faṭbōl. | Indefinite subject: sentences connected without a pronoun |
In formal speech, sentence complements can be introduced with the particle ʔǝnn ("that"), to which some speakers attach a personal pronoun (o or i).[97]
For circumstantial clauses, the conjunction w- introduces subordinate clauses with the sense "while, when, with".[98]
Temporal adverbs such as baʕd (after) may be used with the "ma" to form a subordinate clause: baʕd ma tnaːm ("after she goes to sleep").[97]
Conjunctions
| Levantine | English |
|---|---|
| و w ~ u | and (also with temporal meaning "then, during...") |
| أو ʾaw | or |
| يا ya ... ya | either ... or |
| بس bass | but |
| لإنه laʾinno / حاكم ḥākem / لأن laʾann(o) (Beirut) | because |
| لما lamma / بس bass | as soon as |
| وقت waʾt / وقت اللي waʾt illi | when |
| إلا ma ... ʾilla | just as soon as, hardly |
| طالما ṭāla ma | as long as |
| تـ ta | so that, until |
| عشان ʕašān | so that |
| كل ما kull/kill ma | every time that |
| على بين ما (ʕa)la bēn ma | until |
| أحسن ما ʾaḥsan ma | rather than |
| لـ la / حتى ḥatta / لحتى la ḥatta / منشان minšān | in order to |
| لـ la | lest |
| إذا ʾiza / لو law / إن ʾin / إذاً ʾizan (Amman) | if |
Notes
- ^ C represents a consonant, v represent a short vowel, v̄ represents a long vowel. Short vowel variations include e ~ i ~ ǝ and a ~ ǝ.[53]
- ^ The accent moves to the last vowel.
- ^ Also called perfect.
- ^ Also called bi-imperfect, b-imperfect, or standard imperfect.
- ^ The mn- form is the most common one. However, the bn- form is used in some parts of Palestine such as Jerusalem.
- ^ Also called Ø-imperfect, imperfect, or subjunctive.
- ^ Also called imperative or command.
- ^ Also called present participle. Not all active participles are used and their meaning may vary.
- ^ Also called past participle, mostly used as an adjective. Not all passive participles are used and their meaning may vary.
References
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- ^ Al-Masri 2015, pp. 139–140
- ^ Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 420
- ^ Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 421
- ^ Aldrich 2017, pp. 76–77
- ^ Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 422
- ^ Elihay 2012, pp. 771–779
- ^ Liddicoat, Lennane & Abdul Rahim 2018, p. 19
- ^ Brustad & Zuniga 2019, p. 413
- ^ Hitchcock, Chris (8 February 2017). "FuSHa to Shami 4: Nouns – #TeamMaha". Retrieved 2021-07-17.
- ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, pp. 18–19
- ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, p. 19
- ^ Nammur-Wardini 2011, p. 18
- ^ Laks, Lior (2014). "The Cost of Change: Plural Formation of Loanwords in Palestinian and Jordanian Arabic". Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik. ' (60): 5–34. JSTOR 10.13173/zeitarabling.60.0005
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Sources
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- Aldrich, Matthew (9 February 2021). Palestinian Arabic verbs: conjugation tables and grammar. Lingualism. ISBN 978-1-949650-27-3. OCLC 1249659359
- Al-Masri, Mohammad (28 August 2015). Colloquial Arabic (Levantine): The Complete Course for Beginners. Colloquial Series. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-72685-6. OCLC 919431090
- Brustad, Kristen & Zuniga, Emilie (6 March 2019). "Chapter 16: Levantine Arabic". The Semitic languages. 2nd ed. London & New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 403–432. doi:10.4324/9780429025563. ISBN 978-0-429-02556-3. S2CID 166512720
- Cowell, Mark W. (1964). A Reference Grammar of Syrian Arabic. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 1-58901-003-5. OCLC 249229002
- Elihai, Yohanan (2011a). Speaking Arabic: a course in conversational Eastern (Palestinian) Arabic. Book 1. Jerusalem: Minerva. ISBN 978-965-7397-16-9. OCLC 1076023526
- Elihai, Yohanan (2011b). Speaking Arabic: a course in conversational Eastern (Palestinian) Arabic. Book 2. Jerusalem: Minerva. ISBN 978-965-7397-17-6. OCLC 1073572583
- Elihai, Yohanan (2010). Speaking Arabic: a course in conversational Eastern (Palestinian) Arabic. Book 3. Jerusalem: Minerva. ISBN 978-965-7397-18-3. OCLC 755643505
- Elihai, Yohanan (2011c). Speaking Arabic: a course in conversational Eastern (Palestinian) Arabic. Book 4. Jerusalem: Minerva. ISBN 978-965-7397-19-0. OCLC 755644028
- Elihay, J. (2012). The Olive Tree Dictionary: A Transliterated Dictionary of Eastern Arabic (Palestinian). 2nd ed. Jerusalem: Minerva. ISBN 978-965-7397-06-0. OCLC 825044014
- Liddicoat, Mary-Jane; Lennane, Richard; Abdul Rahim, Iman (June 2018). Syrian Colloquial Arabic: A Functional Course. Rev. 3rd ed. (online) ed. M. Liddicoat. ISBN 978-0-646-49382-4. OCLC 732638712
- Nammur-Wardini, Rita (6 May 2011). L'arabe libanais de poche (in French). Assimil. ISBN 978-2-7005-0357-9. OCLC 758528127
- Tiedemann, Fridrik E. (26 March 2020). The Most Used Verbs in Spoken Arabic: Jordan & Palestine. 4th ed. Amman: Great Arabic Publishing. ISBN 978-1734460407.
External links
- "WALS Online - Language Arabic (Syrian)". World Atlas of Language Structures. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
- "Palestinian Arabic Grammar". Retrieved 2026-02-11. Zaytuna Knowledge for Levantine Dialect